Literary Terms

Literary Terms with Examples English Grade 8 Alliteration—Alliteration is the repetition of beginning consonant sound in a line of poetry. ·         Let us go forth to lead the land we love. J.F. Kennedy, Inaugural Allusion—An allusion makes reference to a historical or literary person, place, or event with which the reader                   is assumed to be familiar.  Many works of prose and poetry contain allusions to the Bible or to                   classical mythology.                  ·         Allusions can be historical, (like referring to Hitler), literary (like referring to Kurtz in Heart of Darkness), religious (like referring to Noah and the flood), or mythical (like referring to Atlas). Archetypal symbols— Numbers—             three—the Trinity ( Father, Son, Holy Ghost); mind, body, spirit; birth, life, death             four—Mankind—four limbs; four elements; four seasons; the ages of man             six—devil; evil seven—Divinity (3) + Mankind (4) = relationship between man and God.  Seven deadly sins; seven                 days of the week; seven days to create the world; seven stages of civilization; seven colors of               the rainbow; seven gifts of the Holy Spirit Shapes—             oval—woman  passivity             triangle—communication between heaven and earth, fire, the number 3, trinity, aspiration, movement                              upward, return to origins, gas, light, sight                square—pluralism, earth, firmness, stability, construction, material, solidity, the number 4                rectangle—most rational, most secure             cross—tree of life, axis of the world, struggle, martyrdom, orientation in space             circle—heaven, intellect, thought, sun, unity, perfection, eternity, oneness, celestial realm, hearing,                           sound             spiral—evolution of the universe, orbit, growth, deepening, cosmic motion, relationship between unity                          and multiplicity, macrocosm, breath, spirit, water Colors—             dark—matter, germ, before existence, chaos             light—spirit, mortality, all, creative force, the direction East, spiritual thought             red—sunrise, birth, blood, fire, emotion, wounds, death, passion, sentiment, mother, anger, excitement,                       heat, physical stimulation orange—fire, pride, ambition, egoism green—earth, fertility, sensation, vegetation, death, water, nature, sympathy, adaptability, growth, envy             blue—clear sky, thinking, the day, the sea, height, depth, heaven, religious feeling, devotion,                        innocence, truth, psychic ability, spirituality, physical soothing and cooling             violet—water, nostalgia, memory, advanced spirituality             gold—majesty, sun, wealth, corn (life dependency), truth             silver—moon, wealth Nature—             air—activity, creativity, breath, light, freedom, liberty, movement             ascent—height, transcendence, inward journey, increasing intensity             center—thought, unity, timelessness, paradise, creator, infinity, neutralizing opposites             descent—unconscious, potentialities of being, animal nature             duality (ying/yang)—opposites, complements, positive-negative, male-female, life-death             earth—passive, feminine, receptive, solid             fire—ability to transform, love, life, health, control, spiritual energy, regeneration, sun, God, passion             image—highest form of knowing, thought as a form             lake—mystery, depth, unconsciousness             crescent moon—change, transition             moon—master of women, vegetation             mountain—height, mass, loftiness, center of the world, ambition, goals             valley—depression, low-points, evil, unknown             sun—hero, son of Heaven, knowledge, the Divine eye, fire, life force, creative guiding force, brightness,                        splendor, active awakening, healing, resurrection, ultimate wholeness             unity—spirit, oneness, wholeness, transcendence, the source, harmony, revelation, active principle, a                          point, a dot, supreme power, completeness in itself, the divinity             water—passive, feminine, change             rivers—life force, life cycle             streams—life force, life cycle             stars—guidance             wind—Holy Spirit, life, messenger             ice/snow—coldness             clouds—mystery, sacred             mist—mystery, sacred             rain—life giver             steam—transformation to the Holy Spirit             volcano—evil, shadow             lightening—intuition, inspiration             tree—where we learn, tree of life, tree of knowledge             forest—evil, lost, fear Objects—             feathers—lightness, speed             shadow—our dark side, evil, devil, materiality             masks—concealment             boats/rafts—safe passage             bridge—change, transformation             right hand—rectitude             left hand—deviousness             feet—stability, freedom             skeleton—mortality, vanity             heart—love, emotions             hourglass—passage of time             father time—time swiftly passing; death Gems—             pearl—royalty, power, passion, tears of joy or sorrow             emerald—fertility, faith, wisdom             jade—perfection, immortality             sapphire—Heaven             diamond—permanence, incorruptibility Animals—             deer (stag)—wisdom             ox—power, strength             spider—web of life             pig—gluttony             griffin—guardian on path to salvation             cat—domesticity             tiger—ferocity, protectiveness             eagle—Sky God             lion—valor, royalty             cockerel—pride, courage             horse—speed, power, mobility             unicorn—female, purity             goat—devil             bear—bravery, strength             bull—power, stubbornness             toad—witchcraft             white elephant—patience, wisdom, long memory             lamb—sacrifice, innocence, purity Birds—flight, ascension             feathers—speed, lightness             dove—peace, Holy Spirit             peacock—pride             pelican—self-sacrifice             raven—prophecy             bat—darkness, chaos Audience—the person or group of people for whom the piece of writing is intended Assonance—Similar vowel sound in stressed syllables that end with different consonant sounds.                         ·         That hoard and sleep and feed, and know not me. Alfred, Lord Tennyson,  “Ulysses” Caricature—an unsubtle, oversimplified, and exaggerated presentation of a character, generally stressing only                           one aspect, so that the reader understands what the character represents.  It is designed to                       make a person or a type of person seen ridiculous. Character---is a person or an animal that takes part in the action of a literary work. A main or major character                      is the most important character in a story, poem, or play.  A minor character plays a lesser role                      but is necessary for the story to develop.                         1—round character---a fully developed character in whom many traits are exhibited                         2—flat character—a one-sided or stereotypical character                         3—static character—a character who does not undergo a change                         4—dynamic character---a character who changes or grows in some way during the course of a                                                                  piece                         5--stock character—a stereotype, character types that occur repeatedly in written and visual                                                             stories and are easily recognizable by readers and viewers. Characterization—the process by which author’s create memorable characters. Authors use two major                                methods of characterization—direct and indirect.                         1—direct characterization—an author tells what the character is like—looks and actions                         2—indirect characterization—a writer reveals a character’s personality through his or her own                                                                            appearance, words, actions, and effects on others. Sometimes                                                                            the writer describes what other participants in the story say and                                                                            think about the character. The reader draws his/her own                                                                           conclusions about the character being analyzed. Colloquial—the use of slang or informalities in speech and writing ·         The man, a dodgy customer with a shifty look inhis eye, was clearly up to no good. Conflict—The struggle which grows out of the interplay of the two opposing forces in a plot.  At least one of                   the opposing forces is usually a person.  This person, usually the protagonist, may be involved in                   conflicts of four different kinds:                         1—against the forces of nature                         2—against another person, usually the antagonist                         3—against society as a force                         4—against opposing elements within the person                         5—against Fate or Destiny Connotation—the implications, inferences, or suggestive power of words, phrases, or figures of speech             ·         The word din suggests noise that does not let up, to the point of being maddening or deafening.  Elie Wiesel, from NIGHT Consonance—The use at the end of verses of words in which the final consonant in the stressed syllable                           agree but the vowels that precede them differ. ·         … like a pair of thick socks...  Jimmy Santiago Baca,  “I Am Offering This Poem” Denotation—the exact or dictionary meaning of a word without its emotional or suggestive associations ·         The denotation of the word politician is one who is professionally engaged in politics. Description—a portrait, in words, of a person, place, or object. Descriptive writing use images that appeal to                         the five senses. ·         The last graveyard flowers were blooming, and their smell drifted across the cotton field and through every room of our house, speaking softly the names of our dead. James Hurst, “The Scarlet Ibis” Dialect—a form of language spoken by people in a particular region or group. Dialects differ in pronunciations,                grammar, and word choice.  Writers use dialect to make their characters seem realistic. ·         The following lines from “A Red, Red Rose” by Robert Burns make use of Scottish dialect: Till a’ seas gang dry, my dear,       And the rocks melt wi’ the sun! Dialogue—the conversation between people in poetry, plays, and stories.  It is a basic source of the study of                    characters and of an author’s style.  Although important in all types of literature, dialogue is                    perhaps most crucial in drama. Diction—the choice and arrangement of words in phrases and images or in larger units such as poetic lines                 and sentences.  Poetic diction has been interpreted as the use of artificial and specialized language                 for the purpose of distinguishing poetry from prose or ordinary speech.    Essay—a short nonfiction work about a particular subject. Most essays have a single major focus and a clear               introduction, body, and conclusion.                          1—narrative essay—tells a true story about real people                         2—expository essay—presents information, discusses ideas, or explains a process                         3—persuasive essay—presents and supports an opinion with strong arguments or reasons                         4—descriptive essay—describes events and feelings by including images and details                         5—reflective essay—communicates a writer’s thoughts about a topic of personal interest Exposition—The exposition is the portion of the story which reveals important character background, setting,                        and initial conflict information. Figurative Language (figures of speech)—writing or speech that is not meant to be taken literally. The many                                                                          types of figurative language include metaphor, simile, and                                                                          personification. ·         He ran like a hare down the street. Figurative meaning—is the suggested by the connotations of words and by the images employed by an                                      author Flashback—is a scene in a short story, novel, play, or narrative poem that interrupts the action to show an                       event that happened earlier. ·         In “And Sarah Laughed,” the author Joanne Greenberg uses flashback when she relates Sarah’s memory of the day she first discovered that her baby was unable to hear. Foreshadowing—is the author’s use of clues to hint at what might happen next in the story. It is used to build                               the reader’s sense of expectations or to create suspense. ·         In Gerald Haslam’s “The Horned Toad,” the death of the toad and its burial in its natural environment foreshadow the death and burial of Grandma in the open country where she’d spent most of her life. Haiku—a three-lined Japanese verse form. The first and third lines of a haiku each have five syllables. The              second line has seven syllables. A writer of haiku uses images to create a single vivid picture,              generally of a scene from nature. ·         a clear sheet of sky calligraphy of blackbirds written and erased                                           Katy Peale                                     Hyperbole—A figure of speech in which conscious exaggeration is used without the intent of literal                       persuasion.  It may be used to heighten effect, or it may be used to produce comic effect.                      Exaggeration or overstatement of an idea, attitude, emotion, or detail in a literary work. ·         “A hundred strong men strained beneath his coffin.”  “The Funeral,” Gordon Parks Idiom—an expression whose meaning is different from the sum of the meanings of its individual words. ·         Burning the midnight oil  means “staying up late ar night.” Imagery—Words and phrases create vivid sensory experiences for the reader.  Though sight imagery is most                   common, imagery may appeal to any of the senses.  Good writers often attempt to appeal to                   several senses. ·         Robert Lowell “Our Lady of Walsingham” There once the penitents took off their shoes And then waked barefoot the remaining mile; And the small tress, a stream and hedgerows file Slowly along the munching English lane, Like cows to the old shrine, until you lose Track of your dragging pain. The stream flows down under the druid tree, Shiloah’s whirlpools gurgle and make glad The castle of God. Irony—the general name given to literary techniques that involve surprising, interesting, or amusing              contradictions.                         1—verbal irony—words are used to suggest the opposite of their usual meanings.                         2—dramatic irony—there is a contradiction between what a character thinks and what the                                                           reader or audience knows to be true                         3—situation irony—an event occurs that directly contradicts the expectations of the                                                              characters, the reader, or the audience. Limerick---a short, humorous poem of five lines. The first, second, and fifth lines rhyme, as do the third and                    fourth. The lines that rhyme have the same rhythm. ·         There was a young person of Mullion, Intent upon marrying bullion;    By some horrible fluke    She jilted a duke And had to elope with a scullion. Literal Meaning—surface meaning of a literary work derived by an emphasis on denotation, summary, and                                paraphrase. Lyric—a poem, generally short, presented by a single speaker, either the poet or some voice imaginatively             adopted by the poet, and expressing some basic emotions such as sorrow or love.  The tone can vary             from light, frivolous compliment to a beloved one to a deeply felt  yearning or sorrow.  They are usually             constructed with a unity of a single mood, emotion, or thought. ·         “The World Is Too Much with Us” and “I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud” by  William Wordsworth are examples of lyric poetry. Metaphor—a comparison between two unlike things. ·         [love] is a pot full of yellow corn to warm your belly in winter       “I Am Offering This Poem,” Jimmy Santiago Baca                    1--extended metaphor—a subject is spoken of, or written, as though it were something else.                                                              However, an extended metaphor differs from a regular metaphor in that                                                              several comparisons are made. Mood—Mood is the feeling or atmosphere that a writer creates for the reader.  Connotative words, sensory               images, and figurative language contribute to the mood of a selection, as do the sound and rhythm of               the language. Moral—a lesson taught by a literary work. A fable usually ends with a moral that is directly stated. A poem,              short story, novel, or essay often suggests a moral that is not directly stated. The reader must draw the              moral from other elements. Motivation—Motivations is the presentation of reasons and explanations for the actions of a character in any                       work of fiction.  It results from a combination of the character’s temperament and moral nature                       with the circumstances in which a character is placed. Narration—is writing that tell a story. Narrative Poem—a story told in verse. Narrative poems often have all the elements of short stories, including                               characters, conflict, and plot. ·         Examples—Beowulf, The Epic of Gilgamesh, Canterbury Tales, Paradise Lost, Rime of the Ancient Mariner, and Rape of the Lock Narrator---a speaker or character who tells a story.                         1—third-person narrator—one who stands outside the action and speaks about it                         2—first-person narrator—one who tells a story and participates in its action Ode—a long lyric poem, generally free in structure and usually serious in subject matter, what can be quite            varied.  The style of an ode is dignified and rhetorical. ·         Ben Johnson “Ode to Sir Lucius Cary and Sir H. Morison” It is not growing a tree In bulk, doth make man better be; Or standing long an Oak, three hundred year, To fall a log at last, dry, bald, and sear. A Lily a day Is fairer far, in May Although it fall and die that night; It was the plant and flower of light. In small proportions we just beauties see; And in short measure, life may be perfect. Onomatopoeia—Onomatopoeia is the use of words which by their pronunciation suggest their meaning.  The                              words literally represent sound. The use of a word or words which imitate the sound they                              stand for. ·         Examples—buzz, hiss, dong, crackle, moo, pop, whiz, whoosh, zoom Oxymoron—contradiction; two contradictory terms or ideas are used together ·         Examples—sweet sorrow, jumbo shrimp, beginning expert, political honesty Parallelism—the balancing of equal parts of a sentence, the repetition of a sentence pattern, or the repetition                        of words at the beginning of lines of poetry.  When an author frequently stresses the equal parts                        of sentences, the word balanced is used to describe his style.  The use of parallelism contributes                        to the musical quality of prose of poetry. Expressing similar or related ideas in similar            grammatical structures. ·         Between the conception / and the creation / Between the emotion / And the response / Falls the Shadow                                        “The  Hollow Men,” T.S. Eliot Personification—Personification gives an inanimate object characteristics of life. ·         And memory sleeps beneath the gray And windless sky…                                “Rain in My Heart,” Edgar Lee Masters Persuasion—used in writing or speech to convince the reader or listener to adopt a particular opinion or                        course of action. Point of View—Point of view refers to the narrative method used in a short story, novel, or nonfiction selection.                         1—first person—The narrator is a character in the story, narrating the action as he or she                                                        understands it.  First person point of view is indicated by the pronoun “I.”                          2—third person—A third person narrator is not a participant in the action and thus maintains a                                                        certain distance from the characters.  Third person point of view is indicated                                                        by he use of the pronouns “he,” “she,” “it,” and “they.”                         3—third person omniscient—The narrator is all-knowing about the thoughts and feelings of                                                                              the characters.  With  this point of view, the writer can reveal                                                                              the emotional responses of all the characters and can                                                                              comment at will on the events taking place. 4—third person limited—The writer presents events as experienced by only one character.                         5—perspective—a study and evaluation of the effects of an author’s choice of communicator                                                       and his means of communication in a literary work that includes persona and                                                       point of view Pun—a play on the meaning of words. ·         coals, colliers, choler, collar from  ACT I, scene 1. Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet Refrain—Refrain is a group of words forming a phrase or a sentence and consisting of one or more lines                  repeated at intervals in a poem, usually at the end of a stanza. ·         Sir Thomas Wyatt— Disdain me not without desert,    Nor leave me not so suddenly; Since well ye wot that in my heart    I mean ye not but honestly.      Disdain me not. Refuse me not without cause why,    Nor think me not to be unjust; Since that by lot of fantasy    This careful knot need knit I must.       Refuse me not… Repetition—the use, more than once, of any element of language—a sound, word, phrase, clause, or                      sentence. Rhetoric—describes the principles governing the art of writing effectively, eloquently, and persuasively Rhetorical Devices—the skill of using spoken or written communication effectively; the art of guiding the                                     reader or listener to agreement with the writer or speaker.                                     1—analogy—making clear a concept or idea by showing its similar to a more familiar concept.                                     2—analysis of cause—identifying the forces responsible for an effect.                                     3—alternatives—considering of other options.                                     4—appeal—an address to the audience usually through the pronoun YOU or WE used          to link the speaker or writer to listener or reader.                                     5—assertion—to suggest for consideration as true or possible.                                     6—antithesis—a statement of purpose opposed to an earlier assertion or thesis.                                     7—anticipate an objection—to anticipate an objection, addressing it before anyone  else can raise the objection.                                     8—ad hominem—to attack another person’s argument as weak because of a human        falling that is not logically part of the argument.                                     9—ad misericordiam—an appeal for sympathy.                                     10—ad populum—appeal to the crowd.                                     11—ad vericundiam—an appeal to authority.                                     12—composition—arguing that a group must have the same qualities or characteristics           as its members.                                     13—concession—an acknowledgment of objections to a proposal.                                     14—consequences of events—listing or indicating what resulted from a particular                                                                                           event or condition.                                     15—contradictory premises—the main premises contradict each other.                                     16—correction of erroneous views of statement—pointing out where another    person’s observations need    modification or correction.                                     17—corrective measures—proposing measures to eliminate undesirable conditions.                                     18—description—the enumeration of characteristics of objects that belong to the same        class.                                                        19—definition—to define a concept like “excessive violence” to help resolve a question     by narrowing or clarifying meaning.                                     20—deduction—arguing from a general point to a particular point or application. 21—direct address—to speak to directly, remove any separation between speaker and audience.                                     22—division—arguing that an individual must have the same qualities or characteristics   of the group.                                     23—dicto simpliciter—an argument based on n unqualified generalization.                                     24—either/or fallacy—requires absolutes which do not allow for intermediate cases;   very clear statements or choices.                                     25—emotional appeal—a speaker’s or writer’s effort to engage feelings in the audience      or reader.                                     26—equivocation—using the same term with a different meaning in the same           argument.                                     27—extended metaphor—a protracted metaphor which makes a series of parallel          comparisons throughout the speech or writing.                                     28—false analogy—wrongful comparisons of dissimilar situations, conditions, or events.                                     29—faulty dilemma—the major premise presents a choice that does not exhaust the  possibilities.                                     30—guilt or innocence by association—providing examples that prove the guilt or           innocence of a person based on his/her           actions, beliefs, or motivations.                                     31—hypothesis contrary to the fact—beginning with a premise that is not necessarily      true and then drawing conclusions from it.                                     32—inquiry as introduction—setting an essay in motion by raising a question and    suggesting that the answer may be interesting or      important.                                     33—illustration of ways to correct a condition—create specific examples to correct a            condition or situation and give very            clear, concise details.                                     34—non-sequitur—the conclusion does not follow in logic from the preceding          argument.                                     35—over generalizing or hasty generalization—too few or too many instances are            presented to reach an accurate            conclusion.                                     36—premise and the common ground—the terms of the premise must be accepted as           true by the reader or the audience.                                     37—rebuttal—final opposition to an assertion; disprove or refute the ideas or opinions of  another person.                                     38—reduce to the absurd—to show the foolishness of an argument by taking the argument to its logical conclusion.                                     39—rhetorical question—to ask a question of an audience or reader to engage them         without having a response from the audience or reader.                                     40—self-evident truth—proceeding from an unwarranted assumption to a foregone      conclusion (time is money)                                     41—specious reasoning—having only apparent logic; not truly logical but presented to           be as such.                                     42—thesis—a statement of purpose or intent.                                     43—under/over statement—to say considerably more or less than a condition             warrants; usually applied for ironic or unexpected contrast. Rhetorical Shift—a shift from tone, attitude, etc. Some signal words for a shift include: however, but, even                                though, although Rhyme—the use of matching sounds, generally accented vowels, at the end of two lines or more of poetry.  It                 contributes to the musical quality of poetry.  Rhythm—the measured movement or beat in the musical flow of poetry established by the technical resources                   of both the poet and the oral interpreter of his work.  Rhythm is really created by many factors                   involved in the reading of poetry. Sarcasm—A form of verbal irony in which, under the guise of praise, a caustic and bitter expression of strong                    and personal disapproval is given. Sarcasm is personal, jeering, intended to hurt, and is intended                    as a sneering taunt. Sensory Language—writing or speech that appeals to one or more of the five senses. Setting—the time and place of the action. The setting includes all the details of a place and time—the year,                 the time of day, even the weather. The place may be a specific country, state, region, community,                 neighborhood, building, institution, or home. Details such as dialect, clothing, customs, and modes of                 transportation are often used to establish the setting. Shift—a change in tone, mood, setting, or characterization that affects the movement of the selection. Simile---a comparison between two unlike things using the words like or as ·         The rugby ball was like a giant egg, which he held carefully while he ran. Speaker—the imaginary voice assumed by the writer of a poem. Stanza—a group of poetic lines arranged into a pattern generally suggested by a rhyme scheme.  Stanzas are                 roughly the equivalent of paragraphs in prose. Stream of consciousness---an author’s representation of the flow of inner thoughts, feelings, and memories                                                 of a character, regardless of logical order and transitions.  This approach is                                                 based on the assumption that our half-conscious and even conscious thoughts                                                 and feeling do not come to us in neat patterns or in carefully constructed plots. ·         William Faulkner The Sound and the Fury—Caddy uncaught me and we crawled through. Uncle Maury said to not let anybody see us, so we better stoop over, Caddy said. Stoop over, Benjy. Like this, see. We stooped over and crossed the garden, where the flowers rasped and rattled against us. The ground was hard. We climbed the fence, where the pigs were grunting and snuffing. I expect they're sorry because one of them got killed today, Caddy said. The ground was hard, churned and knotted. Keep your hands in your pockets, Caddy said. Or they'll get froze. You dont want your hands froze on Christmas, do you. Structure—the basic organization or arrangement of events, details, words, or parts in a literary work. Style—an author’s choice of words and their arrangements in various  patterns of syntax, imagery, and rhythm Suspense—a feeling of anxious uncertainty about the outcome of events in a literary work. Symbol—Symbol is any object, happening, person, or place which stands not only for itself but also for                  something else. ·         The lamb is a symbol of innocence in William Blake’s “The Lamb.” ·         To Mr. Shimada and his faithful employees in Yoshiko Uchida’s “Of Dry Goods and Black Bow Ties,” the bow tie is a symbol of dignity, honesty, and respectability. Technique—any resources or any combinations of means used by an author to shape his material, such as                        his choice and arrangement of words (style), his organization of his material (structure), or his                        handling of characters (characterization). Theme—The main idea of message a writer expresses in a work of literature.  It is a writer’s perception about                 life or humanity shared with a reader.  Themes are seldom stated directly and may reveal                 themselves only through careful reading and analysis. ·         A theme of Doris Lessing’s “A Mild Attck of the Locusts” is that life goes on. Tone—Tone is the attitude a writer takes toward a subject.  It might be humorous, serious, bitter, angry, or             detached among other possibilities. ·         The tone of Thomas Hardy’s “Ah, Are You Digging on My Grave?” is one of bittersweet humor. Understatement—the deliberate playing down of an emotion, thought, judgment, or situation.  When emotion                                 is involved, an author will sometimes employ understatement to imply that the emotion is                                 too powerful or too vast to express.  The lack of stress creates an ironic difference                                 between what the author actually says and what the circumstances would really allow him                                 to say. ·         In “Field Trip, Naomi Shihab Nye uses understatement when she says that the woman who cut off her finger was “distracted.” Wit—intellectually amusing language that surprises and delights the reader ·         Alexander Pope— True wit is Nature to advantage dressed,                 What oft was thought, but ne’er well expressed.